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The Jungle Book (1894) is a collection of stories by the English author Rudyard Kipling. Most of the characters are animals such as Shere Khan the tiger and Baloo the bear, though a principal character is the boy or 'man-cub' Mowgli, who is raised in the jungle by wolves. The stories are set in a forest in India; one place mentioned repeatedly is 'Seonee' (Seoni), in the centralstate of Madhya Pradesh.

A major theme in the book is abandonment followed by fostering, as in the life of Mowgli, echoing Kipling's own childhood. The theme is echoed in the triumph of protagonists including Rikki-Tikki-Tavi and The White Seal over their enemies, as well as Mowgli's. Another important theme is of law and freedom; the stories are not about animal behaviour, still less about the Darwinian struggle for survival, but about human archetypes in animal form. They teach respect for authority, obedience, and knowing one's place in society with 'the law of the jungle', but the stories also illustrate the freedom to move between different worlds, such as when Mowgli moves between the jungle and the village. Critics have also noted the essential wildness and lawless energies in the stories, reflecting the irresponsible side of human nature.

The Jungle Book has remained popular, partly through its many adaptations for film and other media. Critics such as Swati Singh have noted that even critics wary of Kipling for his supposed imperialism^[1] have admired the power of his storytelling.^[1] The book has been influential in the scout movement, whose founder, Robert Baden-Powell, was a friend of Kipling's.^[2]Percy Grainger composed his Jungle Book Cycle around quotations from the book.

• 2Book
• 3Themes

Context

The stories were first published in magazines in 1893–94. The original publications contain illustrations, some by the author's father, John Lockwood Kipling. Rudyard Kipling was born in India and spent the first six years of his childhood there. After about ten years in England, he went back to India and worked there for about six-and-a-half years. These stories were written when Kipling lived in Naulakha, the home he built in Dummerston, Vermont, in the United States.^[3] There is evidence that Kipling wrote the collection of stories for his daughter Josephine, who died from pneumonia in 1899, aged 6; a first edition of the book with a handwritten note by the author to his young daughter was discovered at the National Trust's Wimpole Hall in Cambridgeshire, England, in 2010.^[4]

Book

Description

The tales in the book (as well as those in The Second Jungle Book, which followed in 1895 and includes five further stories about Mowgli) are fables, using animals in an anthropomorphic manner to teach moral lessons. The verses of 'The Law of the Jungle', for example, lay down rules for the safety of individuals, families, and communities. Kipling put in them nearly everything he knew or 'heard or dreamed about the Indian jungle'.^[5] Other readers have interpreted the work as allegories of the politics and society of the time.^[6]

Origins

The stories in The Jungle Book were inspired in part by the ancient Indian fable texts such as the Panchatantra and the Jataka tales.^[7] For example, an older moral-filled mongoose and snake version of the 'Rikki-Tikki-Tavi' story by Kipling is found in Book 5 of Panchatantra.^[8] In a letter to the American author Edward Everett Hale, Kipling wrote,^[7]

The idea of beast-tales seems to me new in that it is a most ancient and long forgotten idea. The really fascinating tales are those that the Bodhisat tells of his previous incarnations ending always with the beautiful moral. Most of the native hunters in India today think pretty much along the lines of an animal's brain and I have 'cribbed' freely from their tales.

In a letter written and signed by Kipling in or around 1895, states Alison Flood in The Guardian, Kipling confesses to borrowing ideas and stories in the Jungle Book: 'I am afraid that all that code in its outlines has been manufactured to meet 'the necessities of the case': though a little of it is bodily taken from (Southern) Esquimaux rules for the division of spoils,' Kipling wrote in the letter. 'In fact, it is extremely possible that I have helped myself promiscuously but at present cannot remember from whose stories I have stolen.'^[10]

Setting

Kipling lived in India as a child, and most of the stories^[a] are evidently set there, though it is not entirely clear where. The Kipling Society notes that 'Seonee' (Seoni, in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh) is mentioned several times; that the 'cold lairs' must be in the jungled hills of Chittorgarh; and that the first Mowgli story, 'In the Rukh', is set in a forest reserve somewhere in northern India, south of Simla. 'Mowgli's Brothers' was positioned in the Aravalli hills of Rajasthan (northwestern India) in an early manuscript, later changed to Seonee, and Bagheera treks from 'Oodeypore' (Udaipur), a journey of reasonable length to Aravalli but a long way from Seoni.^[11][12] Seoni has a tropical savanna climate, with a dry and a rainy season. This is drier than a monsoon climate and does not support tropical rainforest.^[13] Forested parks and reserves that claim to be associated with the stories include Kanha Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh,^[14] and Pench National Park, near Seoni.^[15] However, Kipling never visited the area.^[11]

Chapters

The book is arranged with a story in each chapter. Each story is followed by a poem that serves as an epigram.

Characters

Many of the characters (marked *) are named simply for the Hindi names of their species: for example, Baloo is a transliteration of Hindi भालू Bhālū, 'bear'. The characters (marked ^) from 'The White Seal' are transliterations from the Russian of the Pribilof Islands.

• Akela * – A wolf
• Bagheera * – A black panther
• Baloo * — A bear
• Bandar-log – A tribe of monkeys
• Chil * – A kite, in earlier editions called Rann (रण Raṇ, 'battle')
• Chuchundra * – A muskrat
• Darzee *^[e] – A tailorbird
• Father Wolf – The father wolf who raised Mowgli as his own cub
• Grey brother – One of Mother and Father Wolf's cubs
• Hathi * – An Indian elephant
• Ikki * – A porcupine
• Kaa * – A python
• Karait * – A krait
• Kotick ^ – A white seal
• Mang * – A bat
• Mor * – An Indian peafowl
• Mowgli – Main character, the young jungle boy
• Nag * – A male cobra
• Nagaina * – A female cobra, Nag's mate
• Raksha ^[f] – The Mother wolf who raised Mowgli as her own cub
• Rikki-Tikki-Tavi – A mongoose
• Sea Catch ^ – A seal and Kotick's father
• Sea Cow – A (Steller's) sea cow
• Sea Vitch ^ – A walrus
• Shere Khan * — A tiger
• Tabaqui * – A jackal

Illustrations

The early editions were illustrated with drawings in the text by John Lockwood Kipling (Rudyard's father), and the American artists W. H. Drake and Paul Frenzeny.^[19]

Editions and translations

The book has appeared in over 500 print editions,^[20] and over 100 audiobooks.^[21] It has been translated into at least 36 languages.^[22]

Themes

Abandonment and fostering

Critics such as Harry Ricketts have observed that Kipling returns repeatedly to the theme of the abandoned and fostered child, recalling his own childhood feelings of abandonment. In his view, the enemy, Shere Khan, represents the 'malevolent would-be foster-parent' who Mowgli in the end outwits and destroys, just as Kipling as a boy had to face Mrs Holloway in place of his parents. Ricketts writes that in 'Mowgli's Brothers', the hero loses his human parents at the outset, and his wolf fosterers at the conclusion; and Mowgli is again rejected at the end of 'Tiger! Tiger!', but each time is compensated by 'a queue of would-be foster-parents' including the wolves, Baloo, Bagheera and Kaa. In Ricketts's view, the power that Mowgli has over all these characters who compete for his affection is part of the book's appeal to children.^[23] The historian of India Philip Mason similarly emphasises the Mowgli myth, where the fostered hero, 'the odd man out among wolves and men alike', eventually triumphs over his enemies. Mason notes that both Rikki-Tikki-Tavi and The White Seal do much the same.^[24]

Law and freedom

The novelist Marghanita Laski argued that the purpose of the stories was not to teach about animals but to create human archetypes through the animal characters, with lessons of respect for authority. She noted that Kipling was a friend of the founder of the Scout Movement, Robert Baden-Powell, who based the junior scout 'Wolf Cubs' on the stories, and that Kipling admired the movement.^[23][25] Ricketts wrote that Kipling was obsessed by rules, a theme running throughout the stories and named explicitly as 'the law of the jungle'. Part of this, Ricketts supposed, was Mrs Holloway's evangelicalism, suitably transformed. The rules required obedience and 'knowing your place', but also provided social relationships and 'freedom to move between different worlds'.^[23] Sandra Kemp observed that the law may be highly codified, but that the energies are also lawless, embodying the part of human nature which is 'floating, irresponsible and self-absorbed'.^[23][26] There is a duality between the two worlds of the village and the jungle, but Mowgli, like Mang the bat, can travel between the two.^[23]

The novelist and critic Angus Wilson noted that Kipling's law of the jungle was 'far from Darwinian', since no attacks were allowed at the water-hole, even in drought. In Wilson's view, the popularity of the Mowgli stories is thus not literary but moral: the animals can follow the law easily, but Mowgli has human joys and sorrows, and the burden of making decisions.^[23][27] Kipling's biographer, Charles Carrington, argued that the 'fables' about Mowgli illustrate truths directly, as successful fables do, through the character of Mowgli himself; through his 'kindly mentors', Bagheera and Baloo; through the repeated failure of the 'bully' Shere Khan; through the endless but useless talk of the Bandar-log; and through the law, which makes the jungle 'an integrated whole' while enabling Mowgli's brothers to live as the 'Free People'.^[28]

The academic Jan Montefiore commented on the book's balance of law and freedom that 'You don't need to invoke Jacqueline Rose on the adult's dream of the child's innocence or Perry Nodelman's theory of children's literature colonising its readers' minds with a double fantasy of the child as both noble savage and embryo good citizen, to see that the Jungle Books .. give their readers a vicarious experience of adventure both as freedom and as service to a just State'.^[29]

Reception

Sayan Mukherjee, writing for the Book Review Circle, calls The Jungle Book 'One of the most enjoyable books of my childhood and even in adulthood, highly informative as to the outlook of the British on their 'native population'.'^[30]

The academic Jopi Nyman argued in 2001 that the book formed part of the construction of 'colonial English national identity'^[31] within Kipling's 'imperial project'.^[31] In Nyman's view, nation, race and class are mapped out in the stories, contributing to 'an imagining of Englishness as a site of power and racial superiority.'^[31] Nyman suggested that The Jungle Book's monkeys and snakes represent 'colonial animals'^[31] and 'racialized Others'^[31] within the Indian jungle, whereas the White Seal promotes 'truly English' identities in the nationalist allegory'^[31] of that story.^[31]

Swati Singh, in his Secret History of the Jungle Book, notes that the tone is like that of Indian folklore, fable-like, and that critics have speculated that the Kipling may have heard similar stories from his Hindu bearer and his Portuguese ayah (nanny) during his childhood in India. Singh observes, too, that Kipling wove 'magic and fantasy' into the stories for his daughter Josephine, and that even critics reading Kipling for signs of imperialism could not help admiring the power of his storytelling.^[1]

The Jungle Book came to be used as a motivational book by the Cub Scouts, a junior element of the Scouting movement. This use of the book's universe was approved by Kipling at the request of Robert Baden-Powell, founder of the Scouting movement, who had originally asked for the author's permission for the use of the Memory Game from Kim in his scheme to develop the morale and fitness of working-class youths in cities. Akela, the head wolf in The Jungle Book, has become a senior figure in the movement; the name is traditionally adopted by the leader of each Cub Scout pack.^[2]

Adaptations

The Jungle Book has been adapted many times in a wide variety of media. In literature, Robert Heinlein wrote the Hugo Award-winningscience fiction novel, Stranger in a Strange Land (1961), when his wife, Virginia, suggested a new version of The Jungle Book, but with a child raised by Martians instead of wolves.^[32][33]Neil Gaiman's The Graveyard Book (2008) is inspired by The Jungle Book. It follows a baby boy who is found and brought up by the dead in a cemetery. It has many scenes that can be traced to Kipling, but with Gaiman's dark twist.^[34]

In music, the Jungle Book cycle (1958) was written by the Australian composer Percy Grainger, an avid Kipling reader. It consists of quotations from the book, set as choral pieces and solos for soprano, tenor or baritone.^[35] The French composer Charles Koechlin wrote several symphonic works inspired by the book. BBC Radio broadcast an adaptation on 14 February 1994 and released it as a BBC audiobook in 2008.^[36] It was directed by Chris Wallis with Nisha K. Nayar as Mowgli, Eartha Kitt as Kaa, Freddie Jones as Baloo, and Jonathan Hyde as Bagheera. The music was by John Mayer.^[37]

The book's text has been adapted for younger readers with comic book adaptations such as DC ComicsElseworlds' story, 'Superman: The Feral Man of Steel', in which an infant Superman is raised by wolves, while Bagheera, Akela, and Shere Khan make appearances.^[38]Marvel Comics published several adaptations by Mary Jo Duffy and Gil Kane in the pages of Marvel Fanfare (vol. 1). These were collected in the one-shot Marvel Illustrated: The Jungle Book (2007).^[39]Bill Willingham's comic book series, Fables, features The Jungle Book's Mowgli, Bagheera, and Shere Khan.^[40]

Manga Classics: The Jungle Book, published by UDON Entertainment's Manga Classics imprint, was published in June 2017.^[41]

Many films have been based on one or another of Kipling's stories, including Elephant Boy (1937),^[42] the Russian: Маугли (Mowgli) published as Adventures of Mowgli in the US, an animation released between 1967 and 1971, and combined into a single 96-minute feature film in 1973;^[43]Chuck Jones's made for-TV cartoons Rikki-Tikki-Tavi (1975),^[44]The White Seal (1975),^[45] and Mowgli's Brothers (1976).^[46] Many films, too, have been made of the book as a whole, such as Zoltán Korda's 1942 film,^[47]Disney's 1967 animation^[48] and its 2016 remake,^[49] and the 1989 Italian-Japanese animeJungle Book Shonen Mowgli.^[50]

Stuart Paterson wrote a stage adaptation in 2004, first produced by the BirminghamOld Rep in 2004 and published in 2007 by Nick Hern Books.^[51]

See also

Notes

1. ^'The White Seal' is set in the Pribilof Islands in the Bering Sea.
2. ^Many of the 'animal language' words and names in this story are a phonetic spelling of Russian (probably as spoken with an Aleut accent), for example 'Stareek!' (Старик!) 'old man!'; 'Ochen scoochnie' (said by Kotick) 'I am very lonesome' Очень скучный (correctly means 'very boring'); holluschick (plural -ie) 'bachelor male seal' (холощик) from холостой ('unmarried'); Matkah (Kotick's mother, матка, 'dam', 'mother of an animal', or 'womb')
3. ^Originally titled 'Servants of the Queen'
4. ^'Cavalry Horses' is set to 'Bonnie Dundee'. 'Elephants of the Gun-Teams' fits the tune and has a similar first line to the marching song 'The British Grenadiers', as does 'Gun-Bullocks'. 'Screw-Gun Mules' is set to the tune of the English folk song 'The Lincolnshire Poacher' and echoes some of its lines.^[18]
5. ^Darzee is the Hindi for tailor.
6. ^Raksha is the Hindi for defence.

References

1. ^ ^abcSingh, Swati (2016). Secret History of the Jungle Book. The Real Press. p. 7. ISBN978-0-9935239-2-2.
2. ^ ^ab'History of Cub Scouting'. Boy Scouts of America. Retrieved 30 October 2016. A strong influence from Kipling's Jungle Book remains today. The terms 'Law of the Pack,' 'Akela,' 'Wolf Cub,' 'grand howl,' 'den,' and 'pack' all come from the Jungle Book.
3. ^Rao, K. Bhaskara (1967). Rudyard Kipling's India. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press.
4. ^'Kipling first edition with author's poignant note found'. BBC New. 8 April 2010. Retrieved 26 February 2013.
5. ^Gilmour, David (2003). The Long Recessional: the Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling. Pimlico. ISBN0-7126-6518-8.
6. ^Hjejle, Benedicte (1983). Fddbek, Ole; Thomson, Niels (eds.). 'Kipling, Britisk Indien og Mowglihistorieine' [Kipling, British India and the Story of Mowgli]. Feitskrifi til Kristof Glamann (in Danish). Odense, Denmark: Odense Universitetsforlag. pp. 87–114.
7. ^ ^abcKaori Nagai; Caroline Rooney; Donna Landry, Monica Mattfeld, Charlotte Sleigh, Karen Jones (2015). Cosmopolitan Animals. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 267. ISBN978-1-137-37628-2.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
8. ^Jan Montefiore (2013). In Time's Eye: Essays on Rudyard Kipling. Manchester University Press. pp. 132–134. ISBN978-1-5261-1129-6.
9. ^Rudyard Kipling (2016). Thomas Penney (ed.). The Letters of Rudyard Kipling: Volume 2: 1890-99. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 168. ISBN978-1-349-63806-2.
10. ^Flood, Alison (31 May 2013). 'Rudyard Kipling 'admitted to plagiarism in Jungle Book''. The Guardian. Retrieved 31 May 2013.
11. ^ ^abSlater, John (23 March 2007). 'Seeonee: The Site of Mowgli's Jungle?'. The Kipling Society. Retrieved 14 December 2017.
12. ^'P. W. I.' (September 1969). 'REPORT ON DISCUSSION MEETING of Feb. 19th'(PDF). Kipling Journal. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
13. ^'Climate: Sivani (Madhya Pradesh)'. Climate-Date.org. Retrieved 15 December 2017.
14. ^'On 'The Jungle Book' trail at Kanha National Park'. DNA India. 18 April 2016. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
15. ^Andres, Trisha (15 April 2016). 'The Jungle Book: 5 best tours to Rudyard Kipling's India'. The Telegraph. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
16. ^'The White Seal'. The Kipling Society. Retrieved 30 October 2016.
17. ^'Elephant Boy (1937) - Robert Flaherty, Zoltan Korda - Synopsis, Characteristics, Moods, Themes and Related - AllMovie'. AllMovie.
18. ^'The Musical Settings of Kipling's Verse'(PDF). The Kipling Society. 16 May 2015. Retrieved 30 October 2016.
19. ^'The Jungle Book - With Illustrations by John Lockwood Kipling & Others'. Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 16 December 2017.
20. ^'ti:The Jungle Book au:Rudyard Kipling'. WorldCat. Retrieved 20 December 2017.
21. ^'ti:The Jungle Book au:Rudyard Kipling'. WorldCat. Retrieved 20 December 2017.
22. ^'The Jungle Book, Rudyard Kipling'. WorldCat. Retrieved 16 December 2017.
23. ^ ^abcdefUnderwood, F. A.; Radcliffe, John (30 July 2008). ''Mowgli's Brothers''. Kipling Society. Retrieved 16 December 2017.
24. ^Mason, Philip (1975). Kipling - The Glass, the Shadow and the Fire. Jonathan Cape. p. 171. ISBN978-0224011280.
25. ^Laski, Marghanita (1987). From Palm to Pine, Rudyard Kipling at Home and Abroad. Sidgwick and Jackson. p. 124. ISBN978-0283994227.
26. ^Kemp, Sandra (1988). Kipling's Hidden Narratives. Basil Blackwell. p. 12. ISBN978-0631155775.
27. ^Wilson, Angus (1977). The Strange Ride of Rudyard Kipling. Secker & Warburg. p. 122. ISBN978-0712659277.
28. ^Carrington, Charles (1955). Rudyard Kipling: His Life and Work. Macmillan. p. 208.
29. ^Montefiore, Jan (2011). Booth, Howard J. (ed.). Kipling as a children's writer and the Jungle Books. The Cambridge Companion to Rudyard Kipling. Cambridge University Press. pp. 95–109. ISBN978-1-107-49363-6.
30. ^Mukherjee, Sayan. 'Book: The Jungle Book'. Book Review Circle. Retrieved 30 October 2016.
31. ^ ^abcdefgNyman, Jopi (2001). 'Re-Reading Rudyard Kipling's 'English' Heroism: Narrating Nation in The Jungle Book'. Orbis Litterarum. 56 (3): 205–220. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0730.2001.d01-44.x.
32. ^'Biography: Robert A. Heinlein'. Heinlein Society.
33. ^'1962 Award Winners & Nominees'. Worlds Without End. Retrieved 27 July 2009.
34. ^'Journal: The Graveyard Book'. Neil Gaiman's Journal. 13 February 2008.
35. ^'CD Review. Percy Grainger. Jungle Book'. Classical Net. Retrieved 30 October 2016.
36. ^'BBC Press Office - new releases'. bbc.co.uk. 25 July 2008. Retrieved 4 June 2016.
37. ^'Diversity Website - Radio Plays - The Jungle Book'. suttoelm.org.uk. Retrieved 4 June 2016.
38. ^Superman Annual. DC Comics. 1994.
39. ^'The Jungle Book'. Fanfare #8–11, 64 pages. Marvel. April 2007.
40. ^SPH Magazines (2007). GameAxis Unwired. SPH Magazines. p. 78. ISSN0219-872X.
41. ^Manga Classics: The Jungle Book (2017) UDON Entertainment ISBN978-1772940190
42. ^'Elephant Boy (1937) - Robert Flaherty, Zoltan Korda - Synopsis, Characteristics, Moods, Themes and Related - AllMovie'. AllMovie. Retrieved 16 December 2017.
43. ^Smith, Patrick (15 April 2016). 'We don't wanna be like you: how Soviet Russia made its own, darker Jungle Book'. The Telegraph. Retrieved 16 December 2017.
44. ^'Rikki-Tikki-Tavi (TV 1975)'. IMDb. Retrieved 12 April 2013.
45. ^'The White Seal (TV 1975)'. IMDb. Retrieved 12 April 2013.
46. ^'Mowgli's Brothers (TV 1976)'. IMDb. Retrieved 12 April 2013.
47. ^'Jungle Book (1942)'. British Film Institute. Retrieved 16 December 2017.
48. ^'The Jungle Book'. Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 16 December 2017.
49. ^'The Jungle Book'(PDF). Disney. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
50. ^'Mondo tv S.P.A - LIBRARY The jungle book'. Retrieved 18 March 2017.
51. ^'Stuart Paterson – complete guide to the Playwright and Plays'. Retrieved 16 December 2017.

External links

• The Jungle Book at Project Gutenberg
• The Jungle Book public domain audiobook at LibriVox